CERAMICS HOW TO Authenticate THE FINE PIECES 

The Chinese have been producing Ceramics for thousands of years, and no country in the world has produced as many with more variations in materials, styles, motifs and qualities. For thousands of years the Chinese ceramic industry developed from meeting the basic needs of people, to objects of art, status, wealth and power. The ceramics industry became one of China’s main sources of trade throughout the ancient world and revenue for the Emperor and the Imperial court. The Chinese have been collecting ceramics for thousands of years. Many pieces would be passed down from generation-to-generation and only used for special occasions or never use at all. For the inexperienced collector Chinese ceramics can seem overwhelming because of all the periods, dynasties, materials, forms, styles, motifs, colors, qualities, condition, marks and skills of artisans in any respective period. New collectors can be intimidated but with a little desire anyone can learn, and all of these things are what makes collecting Chinese ceramic enjoyable and interesting. With desire a little reading and good observation anyone can identify fine old ceramics. Beginning collectors should start by reading a few books that touch on most areas of Chinese ceramics. 

The book by He Li from the Asian art Museum called (Chinese Ceramics), two books by Wang Qingzheng called (A dictionary of Chinese Ceramics) and (Under glaze Blue and Red), and (Ming ceramics in the British museum) by Jessica Harrison- Hall are good starting points. Also another book with many informative articles and fine photography is (Chinese Ceramics selected articles from Orientations 1982-1998) by Orientations magazine. Generally collectors should start by specializing their collecting. This can be done by period, dynasty, or type of ware. Each period, dynasty, and type of ware have their own characteristics and it is better to be an expert in one or two areas then to branch out from there. It is very important that inexperienced collectors read as much material as possible about their area of collecting. I consider serious collectors to be anyone that pays serious money for a Chinese art object. It is important that collectors have the knowledge and confidence to authenticate the ceramics that they are considering collecting, and to know the capabilities of the potters. The books on Chinese arts often spend little time conveying the facts of authenticating ceramic wares and spend a lot effort with historic and scientific information which is informative and interesting. Do not get bogged down and lose interest or believe you have to know all of it and speak Chinese to be an expert collector. 

You must pay close attention to the areas in books that teach you how to recognize and authenticate your area of interest. Always keep in mind the finest pieces are not published and are not in the museums. You may have to read between the lines to get to the facts. Often you may read something about rarity of an object. Do not let this influence you; simply no one knows what survives. The finest ceramics were collected and cared for all through China’s history and today collectors of ceramics should strive for excellence. Your eyes can be your best teacher and good observation is the key. View as many quality photographs as possible and pay close attention to color, form, motif, condition and style of the period. There have been a lot of rumors about fakes and that only a few experts can tell the difference. The Chinese potters do make replicas and this can be very misleading because if you put the real thing next to a reproduction they are not even close. I have seen a Yuan blue and white plate in a video the color was blackish the base was pure white and looked like it just came out of the kiln. If you have no experience invest in books and with a little knowledge you will spot reproduction they stand out like sore thumbs. If you invest your money take the time to know the difference for your own piece of mind. The Chinese artisans do fine work but they are not at all like the potters of the past and they do not have the same materials or mind set so it would be next to impossible to duplicate something from the past because there are to many elements involved. With a little knowledge and desire to know what the real thing looks like anyone can tell the difference. If you have the opportunity handle as many pieces as possible. Good observation will help you to gain a understanding of where your collection fits this current market. 

The Chinese ceramic artisans were generally specialist in one part of the manufacturing process, I have read that up to seventy two processes were performed in the manufacturing of one object during certain periods of the Ming Dynasty. The best artisans worked together and generally use the finest materials and more complicated motifs and forms; these wares would bring the highest prices. These fine wares could have a lot of detail or could be freely painted with forms that are well balanced and colors very pleasing regardless of size but generally larger is better. The finest artisans were not as concerned about time as they were trying to create the finest wares possible of that particular period. The finest wares are so because of their fine potting, painting, glaze, color, form, motif, firing, condition, and execution or skill of the artisan of their respective period. Even though many pieces were produced using the same motifs there are large differences in the way each artisan executed the motif; some artisans were more skilled and meticulous than others. 

Often parts of motifs were left out or were added to for example some pieces can have more or less leaves, clouds, branches, uneven amounts florets, and other minor things, the potters were only human and this type of thing happened sometimes intentionally and unintentionally. Naturally the wares that have more of the standard motifs these will have more value. The early wares were not as strict as some would make you believe some wares can have more foliage than others or for instance a phoenixes wings may have more or less feathers and the wings could be turned up or turned down. The denser foliage is the more appealing because there was more thought and work involved. Also there can be slight differences in potting forms and foot rings. These things had a lot to do with the skill and patience of the artisans. If something is major and extremely different on the large picture which affects the symmetry or does not make sense, such as, six toes on a dragon or an odd number of large flowers, this will largely affect the value. Although the potters worked with standard motifs, they did have some artistic freedom, such as they may have decided to paint a larger fish and were unable to put all the elements that are standard in that particular motif without effecting the symmetry. This is often done to give a larger verity to there wares. What concerns me is the minor motif issues that some will used to discredit authentic wares to serve their agenda, this is wrong and unnecessary. Minor motif issues have nothing to do with authenticating ceramic wares. If the object is finely painted, has good form, and good color it this will generally overcome any minor motif issues. 

The imperial marked pieces have large differences in levels of skill, and quality which affects the value substantially. Often blue and white can be produce at exactly the same time, be painted by two different artisans, and have large differences in skill and execution of the same motif. For instance, one object the painting could be soft, not crisp, poorly balanced, be smeared and not flow, and on the other object the painting can be detailed, sharp and crisp, flow, no smearing, and be well balanced. These differences can cause large variations of value depending on the amount of variations and how far apart they are. It is very important for the collector to know the capabilities of the finest potters of their area of collecting to determine what level your collection will fall into. Many collector are left in the dark because they do not know what the potters were capable of doing. This is a big problem for the collector and can be harmful to them because the best wares are not published; you must rely on often unreliable information. There are also those that will use the skill differences to discredit the authenticity to serve their own agenda and this is also unnecessary and harmful.

Color is extremely important! Blue and white wares can vary in shades and color. This often would depend on what cobalt’s were used, how they were prepared and applied, how well they were fired, the period of manufacture, the color of the paste, the clarity of the glaze, and the amount and color of the tint in the glaze, and the amount of glaze applied. Always keep in mind there is several desirable shades of color in each period and this becomes more of a personal preference but the color always must be pleasing. The form of a object is also important and this can vary from piece to piece. For instance you could have two vases made at the same time, both are well painted and balanced but one is tall and slender and the other is short and fat. In today’s world the tall and slender vase would be more pleasing and likely more valuable. The condition of an object is also important and can make or break the value; usually the finest objects were well cared for. The historic significance or period of an object can influence the value of ceramic wares. For instance 14th and 15th century blue and white is more valued then Qing dynasty blue and white even if the earlier object seems to have flaws. The standards are much stricter for the Qing blue and white and often some flaws can be expected and easier overlooked on the earlier wares. 

Do not be influenced or over value Chinese ceramics based on claims of rarity or knowledge of previous owners or sellers. Simply in Chinese art, no one knows what survives and values are often inflated for the wrong reasons. The object will determine the value and the collector will determine price. Collecting Chinese ceramics is evolving. You can look at auction catalogs from the eighties to see what was being sold then compared to now. As the market expands the bar will continue to be raised so remain cautious. There are also highly collectable wares that have very unusual colors which can vary from the normal for that particular object and period. For an example, monochrome wares or early blue and white may actually take on several shades during the same period, and occasionally objects may become very bright after firing or the early blue and white may look black and misfired; and this is out of the normal for that period. These types of wares can be highly collectable even if they do not meet all the standards of the finest wares of that given period; these types of wares generally have their own unique character. 

The firing timing of wares was very important and could make or break the color. There can be two object painted with the same batch of cobalt, one is fired perfectly and has rich beautiful color the other has undeveloped dull color all because the firing timing was off. The most collected wares are the Song / Yuan dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty. I would like to mention some things about these dynasties that maybe of some help to recognize some of the finer wares and more collectable areas of these dynasties. The Song and Yuan dynasties have several highly collectable wares and most are not marked. From the Xuande period of the Ming Dynasty the highly collectable wares are generally marked and the finest of these wares went to the Imperial court, wealthy, and highest levels of Chinese society. Today these fine wares are in private collections in and outside of China and most remain unpublished. Today collectors need the finest wares to be published with high quality photography. Always keep in mind in many areas the published photographs do not reflect the finest wares and this can be harmful to collectors that rely on what they read, view, and pay for an object. China is changing and as a result collectors should evaluate where their collections will fit the future market as this market expands and more pieces become available. 

The Qing dynasty ceramics seem to be the most published, abundant, and collected. Many collectors feel Qing dynasty wares are the finest China has ever produced. The most collectable Qing periods are the Kangxi reign, Yongzheng reign, and Qianlong reign. The Qing dynasty potters had the benefit of thousands of years of refining the processes of ceramics. During the Qing Dynasty many Chinese were collecting antiques seriously and Qing potters created demand for their modern wares. To do this they raised the bar to another level that has not been matched since. The Qing potters perfected the enamels and glazes of their day and were able to control these materials to create the most detailed wares that China ever produced. The polychrome over and under glaze wares are the most abundant and collectable for good reason. This is the area that Qing potters shined the brightest with their great attention to detail, new styles, new colors, new motifs, and total mastery of these wares. The early Qing monochrome glazes were perfected and new colors were introduced. 

The Qing blue and white lacked the materials of the early blue and white especially the imported Sumali / Smalt blue cobalt. For most of the Qing period they lacked the Mohammedan blue cobalt. The Mohammedan blue cobalt was used from the 16th century to the early Qing dynasty, most was used up in the Kangxi reign and but there are some Yongzheng, and Qianlong reign blue and white that used Mohammedan blue cobalt. The Qing dynasty blue and white that used Mohammedan blue cobalt stand apart from wares that used only the Chinese Domestic blue cobalt. The Qing potters were able to makeup for the lack of the finest materials with their skill and attention detail to make their own market. There is a downside although Qing Dynasty blue and white wares do not match the color, tone, free style, and artistic character of the 14th and 15th century. The Qing potters tried to improve blue and white and retain the earlier wares character. 

Although Qing potters mostly used Chinese domestic cobalt, which they finely refined to develop a pleasing range of dull colors. The domestic cobalt was very controllable and they were able paint very fine details that do look flat and without the depth of the earlier blue and white. The Chinese domestic mineral blue cobalt color has a dull grayish purplish tone of blue and lacks the depth, brilliant color, and rich blackish tone of the sumali / smalt cobalt blue, or the dazzling color with a reddish purplish tone of Mohammedan cobalt blue of the 16th century to the early Qing or the Reddish purple tone of the European foreign blue that became available in the late 19th century. The Qing potter tried very hard to achieve the rich blackish tone of the early blue and white and tried to mimic the heaping and piling effect of the earlier wares, which was not successful. The early Qing objects which were painted with Mohammedan cobalt; often the potters tried to tone down the dazzling reddish purple tone and create the blackish tone of the 14th and 15th century. The blue color often looks muddy as if they used blackish color pigment to achieve this look. In photographs often the flash will pull out the rich color of the Mohammedan cobalt and when you see the object in person the cobalt will look muddy in the areas that are darkest. 

The imported Mohammedan has three times as much pure cobalt pigment as the Chinese domestic and the imported sumali / smalt blue cobalt has more pure cobalt pigment than Mohammedan or European foreign blue. This is why often in photographs the brilliant blue color will pop out when imported cobalt is used, and if Chinese domestic cobalt is used alone you will not see the cobalt pigment pop out in photographs. Often in photographs the color of the different cobalt can look similar at first glance; you must compare them and look very closely. At the end of the 19th century a cobalt call Foreign blue the was imported from Europe. The European Foreign blue cobalt has almost the same exact color as Mohammedan Cobalt with the reddish purple tone. The European foreign blue was refined before it was brought into China. The Mohammedan blue is Opaque and European foreign blue is translucent both have a reddish purple tone. And for those that collect pieces from the early 16th century to the early Qing period you must always remain cautious because Mohammedan and European blue look so much alike with their reddish purple tone. Also the sumali / smalt cobalt and the Mohammedan cobalt and the European foreign blue are often the hardest to tell apart in photographs because they will all pop out in photos, but with close observation their tone differences become apparent.

When you view and handle blue and white the cobalt differences become very clear and the tones are easy to tell apart. For those that are unsure how to distinguish the tone of these cobalt's always rely on the other known craft techniques because often collector do not handle enough pieces to be able tell the differences at a glance. And blue and white wares that are almost black in color can be the most difficult pieces to tell the tones of the cobalt apart in photographs. So you must use the other known craft techniques that were used in that period. This is why the collector must view as many quality photographs and handle as many pieces as possible. To gain a good understanding of the craft techniques, motifs, and forms in your area of collecting. The Qing wares that are painted in a free style generally look out of place because you usually expect only fine details in Qing wares. Their great attention to detail often makes the Qing wares seem stiff and the artisans somewhat mechanical. This is one reason that many collectors believe artistically the earlier wares are more important. The most collectable and finest Qing wares must have first and foremost great detail, form, color, motif, glaze, and condition of any particular style. The collectors of fine Qing wares must understand that because Qing wares are abundant they must strive for excellence with attention to detail as the starting point.

The Ming Dynasty ceramics have a reputation that everyone in the world knows. Even if they have no interest or knowledge of ceramics, you can mention Ming and instantly it will be recognized as important, valuable, rare, and the finest ceramic in the world. As in other dynasties there were great periods of artistic innovation that brought ceramics to another level. The Yuan dynasty produced some of the finest blue and white that can stand right alongside those of Xuande reign and Chenghua reign of the Ming Dynasty. I have read the Yuan blue and white was not highly regarded at the time, this may be so but I fine it hard to believe. The 14th and 15th century produced the finest and most collectable blue and white China ever produced. For those that know and have handled blue and white understand it was developed in Yuan dynasty, slightly declining in the Hongwu reign, and refined during Yongle reign. The motifs and forms were expanded during the Xuande reign, and brought to another level in the Chenghua reign, that has not been matched since. 

Generally in Yuan dynasty wares are coarse, heavy, and thick which is part of their appeal. The Yuan blue and white figures motifs are most prized. The dragon motifs have three or four claws and even five clawed dragons may exist. Yuan blue and white motifs often used dragons, phoenixes, many different animals, insects, and floral scrolls. Most Yuan blue and white wares are not marked but there are some with eight character marks. The Yuan larger wares were luted / joined horizontally and the thick join line can usually be seen on the inside of vessels. The Yuan dynasty potters were not the first to use cobalt blue under glaze, they were the first to control, develop, and master this medium. Yuan potters were the first to use Chinese ink painting techniques on blue and white porcelain and first to use imported sumali / Su-ni-bo / smalt blue Cobalt. For the collectors of blue and white the imported sumali / so-ni-bo /smalt blue cobalt is the most important single material in Chinese blue and white other than earth and glaze. There are those that use different names for this imported cobalt but the important thing is this cobalt was used on the finest 14th and 15th century blue and white. The sumali / smalt blue cobalt was imported from some were in the Middle East and today they are unsure which country it was imported from; some say Persia / Iran others say Syria. 

The imported sumali / smalt blue cobalt has a rich blackish tone of blue, and this is what makes the 14th and 15th blue and white, easy for collectors that understand the differences to distinguish it from other blue and white. The sumali / smalt blue imported cobalt would run uncontrollably and had to be mixed with the Domestic Chinese blue cobalt to stabilize it. The amount of each of these two cobalt's would determine the shade and color. These colors can range from almost black to pale blue and at times in photographs it can even look a little purplish. The rich blackish tone will always remain the same. The imported sumali / smalt blue cobalt is transparent which gives texture and depth. The sumali / smalt cobalt is the finest and purist blue cobalt pigment it is purer than Mohammedan and European Foreign blue cobalt which is several times purer than Chinese domestic cobalt. Some say that the imported sumali / smalt blue cobalt was not used after the 15th century. This is not quite correct there are some early 16th century pieces that used this cobalt. The imported Mohammedan blue cobalt was use from the 16th century to the early Qing dynasty and they started using European Foreign blue at the end of the 19th century.

Very few photographs capture the different cobalt blue colors and tone correctly in the book by (He Li Chinese Ceramics plate 409) and one photograph in (Sotheby 30 years in Hong Kong Plate 245). Most photographs of 14th and 15th century wares in the book (Chinese ceramics selected articles from orientation 1982-1998) by Orientation magazine. Most of the blue colors and tone are good examples of the color and tone when imported sumali / smalt blue cobalt and Chinese domestic blue cobalt are mixed together. Often in catalogs the photographs are not the actual color often they will show 14th and 15th century blue and white to even look purple. So be careful when you evaluate photographs with today digital photography and advanced printing you would expect colors to be closer to the real thing but most times there not. The shades can be lighter or darker but the rich blackish tone of blue will remain the same in the finest late 14th and 15th century blue and white. The blackish tone of imported sumali / smalt blue cobalt cannot be duplicated, and this blackish tone is what gives the richness, depth and brilliant color to the 14th and 15th century blue and white. 

When cobalt is not finely refined or grinded it would often cause what is called the heaping and piling effect, and this happened often but not always in Yuan dynasty and early Ming Dynasty. The heaping and piling effect is when the cobalt lump up and along lines you will often see dots and areas where the cobalt is thicker you can see black spots that melt into the glaze. The edges of the spots will be soft and often break through the surface of the glaze which creates surface spots. Importantly when sumali / smalt blue cobalt is used the spots will look black and melt into the glaze and the edges will be soft. When they break the surface and light reflects the spots will look silvery or black the edges are sharp and will not look dark brown. The darker areas that used more of the sumali / smalt pure cobalt pigment the silvery reflection can usually be seen. The sumali / smalt blue cobalt is transparent and this gives life, texture, and depth to Chinese domestic cobalt which can be seen on 14th and 15th century blue and white. This is also important all Chinese domestic blue cobalt has a dull grayish purplish or reddish tone of blue and when it is not finely refined this cobalt will leave heaping and piling spots. These spots can look black but they will not melt into the glaze and the edges will not be soft, when these spots break the surface they will only reflect light slightly and be dark brown in color. Most importantly 14th and 15th century blue and white sometimes used Chinese domestic blue cobalt to paint lines. 

Importantly always remember in photographs the cobalt color that looks black or gray can be the most difficult to tell tone and which cobalt that was used. You must see the object in person to recognize the rich depth when sumali / smalt cobalt is used. At times you may see brown heaping and piling spots in the lines, this is when you must determine the authenticity by color and tone of the entire piece and use the other know craft techniques that were used during that particular period. The following is conclusive evidence that the piece used sumali / smalt cobalt and is authentic: The blue will be rich and transparent with a blackish tone, not purplish red or dull grayish purplish tone, not flat, not dull. If there are black spots these will melt into the glaze, the edges of the spots will be soft, and the places that break the glaze surface they will have sharp edges the color will be black and sometimes they will have a silvery reflection not Brown. Naturally the other known craft techniques must fit the period. The finest and most collectable 14th 15th century blue and white will have rich brilliant transparent color, well balanced forms, well executed motifs, little smearing, well glazed, excellent condition, and the colors can range from rich almost black to pale delicate blue and size does matter. No one knows what survives and not to be left behind you must always strive for excellence when collecting ceramics. When you know color, craft techniques, skill and capabilties of the artisans, and not have to rely on others only then will collecting become enjoyable and rewarding. 

I am not saying Chinese Domestic blue cobalt was never used alone during the 14th and 15th century, I am saying the finest wares used both mixed. I have read during the Hongwu reign the majority of blue and white used Chinese domestic blue cobalt. The most important and the finest Hongwu pieces used both cobalt's mixed together. Generally the finest Hongwu blue and white wares have the heaping and piling effect and when sumali / smalt blue cobalt was used the spots will be black and when they break the surface light will reflect very silvery or black. I read the Hongwu Emperor favored under glaze red wares because of the difficulty he had obtaining imported sumali / smalt blue cobalt. The Hongwu wares are somewhat similar but simpler then Yuan dynasty. The Hongwu blue and white use dragons that can have three, four, or the imperial five claws, they used simpler floral designs and the wares are heavily potted. The Hongwu larger wares were luted / joined horizontally and the thick join line can usually be seen on the inside of a vessel. The highly collectable Hongwu pieces are their under glaze red ware that fired to a bright red color and their finest blue and white. There also are blue and white, and red wares with a very thin glaze that seem misfired to an almost black color. These wares have a very unique character and the finest ones are highly collectable. I have read that no Hongwu wares are marked this is not quite right to those that own authentic marked Hongwu pieces.

During the Yongle reign the paste, potting, glaze and control over Sumali / smalt blue cobalt became more refined and blue and widely accepted. The Yongle blue and white wares were not as heavily potted as the earlier wares and generally not as heavy as the later Xuande wares. The Yongle glaze is glossy, smooth, and the sumali / smalt blue cobalt shows the rich vibrant color and shades it is known for. The Yongle larger wares were luted / joined horizontally. The Yongle motifs generally incorporate floral scrolls, flowers, fruit, dragons, phoenixes, and sometimes figures and birds. The Yongle potters used both imported sumali / smalt blue cobalt and Chinese domestic blue cobalt mixed together. Some Yongle wares have heaping and piling spots and this depended on how well they refined and applied the cobalt. Most Yongle wares are not marked and the dragons could have three, four, or five claws. The Yongle blue and white painting techniques commonly caused lighter and darker variations in the blue shading. This happened because they used smaller strokes and a smaller brush that had to be refill continually. The most common Yongle forms are vases, ewers, flasks, plates, bowls, stem cups, cups, and jars. The Yongle reign flowed into the Xuande reign and many techniques were the same. 

The Xuande potters production of blue and white increased substantially many new variations of forms and motifs were introduced. The finest Xuande blue and white wares are marked with either a four or six character marks. Xuande blue and white painting techniques were similar to the Yongle reign with variations of lighter and darker shades of blue. The variation in shades were caused by the use of small strokes and small brush. The Xuande glazes usually have a bluish greenish tint. The amount of tint can vary and they also used a whitish glaze. Xuande glaze usually has uneven bubbles and tiny pits that can be seen as the light reflects. Often the 14th and 15th century blue and white bases develop a either a brown, faint reddish brown, to dark reddish brown often called flush this is caused by the iron content in the biscuit or glaze and naturally the kiln heat builds more on the base. Sometimes the bases can look burnt from the heat buildup which is call modeling often this can be seen in Chenghua vessels. The Xuande potters often wiped a thin layer of glaze over the exposed base. The Xuande potters first used a slip of white glaze before applying the blue cobalt pigment so the cobalt was in between two layers of glaze. The slip of glaze can often be seen around the base or on the inside of the neck of vessels; you will see the whitish glaze slip with the bluish greenish tinted glaze on top. 

The Xuande vases and larger wares were luted or joined horizontally which can usually be felt on the outside. Usually the inside of vessels would be finished and not show the join line. The finest Xuande blue and white used imported sumali / smalt blue cobalt and domestic Chinese blue cobalt mixed together which often left the heaping and piling spots. These spots would happen when the cobalt was not refined or grinded enough and not all Xuande blue and white have heaping and piling spots. The Xuande wares that have these spots they will be black melt into the glaze with soft edges, when the spots break the surface and light reflects the edges are sharp and they will look black and often reflect silvery not brown. The Xuande wares are generally heavier and more robust then Yongle wares. The Xuande blue and white color and shades depended on the amount of sumali / smalt blue cobalt and Chinese domestic cobalt that was used. The colors could range from almost black to pale blue with always the blackish tone. The blackish tone can be difficult to see in photographs of wares when the cobalt looks black or grayish. When Sumali / smalt cobalt is used the dark colors are very rich with depth. 

The 15th century potters often wiped the glaze over the foot ring which closes off the biscuit. If you check the foot ring for flaking you may not find it because it was closed off and harden by the glaze. The flaking in the biscuit often happens in very old porcelain because over a very long time it will cure and dry out. If you scratch the biscuit with your fingernail and check that area with a 10x loupe you will see the flakes. This is a good way to check 15th century porcelain, but just make sure you are not scratching were the glaze has hardened the biscuit. Large vessels were joined in horizontal sections and they used a coarser mix of clay so the vessel would not sag and the flaking in the biscuit often cannot be seen but you should check the lid for flaking. Sometimes there is grit around the foot ring where the glaze has ended on early Ming wares. 

The Xuande potters produced numerous forms and motifs and many are not published. They painted several styles of dragons and often they used the Yuan dynasty dragon with the long slender neck, but the Xuande dragon will look more fierce then the Yuan dragon. Some of the more common Xuande motif used dragons, phoenixes, floral designs, three friends, and figure story, among others. The Xuande potters were the first to use the doucai style of under glaze blue that would be filled in with over glaze enamels. The Xuande doucai wares are quite unique in their style. The groundwork of this technique was developed earlier. There are always variations in the potter’s skill and this is why collectors must strive for excellence. The finest Xuande blue and white will have, first and foremost very fine color, form, glaze, and be freely painted with little smearing and pleasing balanced forms and motifs.

After the Xuande reign the blue and white wares declined until the Chenghua reign. The Chenghua potters brought blue and white wares to their full potential. The Chenghua potters were able to control and master the sumali / smalt blue cobalt and Chinese domestic pitang / pingdeng blue cobalt. The Chenghua potters highly refined / ground these cobalt's, and by mixing these cobalt's together they develop their full range of shades and also eliminated the heaping and piling effect. Some say the during the Chenghua reign many people preferred the pale blue using Chinese domestic pitang / pingdeng blue cobalt with a gray tone; this is not quite right. The Chinese domestic cobalt has a dull grayish purplish blue color and was not used alone on the finest Chenghua blue and white, they always used enough imported sumali/ smalt blue cobalt to give the blackish tone and brilliant color, and this sumali /smalt blue is what gives the life to the Chinese domestic cobalt. This blackish tone can be seen in the finest Chenghua blue and white regardless of the blue shade. 

The Chenghua whitish glaze and slightly off white body often tones down the sumali / smalt cobalt ever so slightly and gives a very refined look to the blue shade, that some think has a gray tone. For those that know the differences in the color, shade, and tones of the imported cobalt's and the amount that they differ from the Chinese domestic cobalt's. They will recognize authentic blue and white very easily because all the other known craft techniques will just fall into place. You should pay close attention to photographs and compare them next to each other, and in time you will be able to distinguish the different tones of each cobalt, and importantly be able to identify the finest 14th and 15th century blue and white that used imported sumali / smalt blue cobalt. The early Chenghua blue and white wares were very similar to Xuande wares until their processes started to develop. I have read that no Chenghua Jars were made with helmet shaped lids, this is wrong large Jars often have this lid. Chenghua blue and white went through phases just as their Doucai wares did. They refined the potting, cobalt, glaze, and they developed their own distinct painting style and introduced new forms and motifs. 

The painting on Chenghua blue and white is outlined and filled in with a broad brush. Often they used contrasting shades cobalt blue color, this gives levels of depth and texture. The Chenghua glaze is very fine glossy and soft to the touch, the bubbles in the glaze are tiny and even. The glaze was so finely refined it would usually take on the color of the porcelain clay that was used. You can often see this where the biscuit is exposed on the foot ring. As in other periods the glaze can be applied thinly or thicker and more glaze the glassier the finish. The Chenghua potters are also known for the very fine potting and delicate thin bodies. Chenghua bodies are usually tapered thicker at the base to thinner at the rim. Often they will thin down right before the rim edge and start getting ever so slightly thicker before the rim edge and some call this a bump. This can be felt between your thumb and first finger as you slowly pull upward towards the rim. The Chenghua wares have a distinctive effeminate touch that sets these wares apart. There are those who will say the Chenghua glaze has a ting of yellow, whitish, or brownish. I prefer whitish or clear and there are fewer with the bluish tint. Unglazed Chenghua bases can become reddish brown some call it flush, or light burnish spots and often the bases on vessels will look dark reddish brown and burnt, often called modeling. Chenghua potters paid less attention to wiping the edge of the glaze at the foot ring on some wares and the line can be wavy but this does not happen on every Chenghua piece usually it can be seen on larger vessels.

For those with the knowledge on this subject were not surprised when recently it was reported that Chenghua pieces were not all small. After excavating the kiln site they found shards of large vessels and also determine that they produce more doucai wares then blue and white wares. The large Chenghua blue and white wares are usually densely decorate in band of motifs and the smaller wares can be densely or sparingly decorated with or without bands of motifs. The six characters Chenghua mark is very distinctive and written in similar fashion on all the finest Chenghua wares. The Chenghua marks are not all written by one person. The strokes are usually always executed in the same manner and form. When compared and closely examined you can clearly see the different hands that produce them as they went through their phases. On most blue and white bowls, cups, small dishes, small and medium jars, vases with glazed bases the mark would be written in a double circle or rarely double square. On large plates with unglazed bases the mark was written horizontally below the lip, and on large jars, and vases with unglazed bases the mark was written horizontally usually on the shoulder. The cranes neck vessels if they have a glazed base the mark was written in a double circle on the base, and those with unglazed bases the mark would be written horizontally on the neck join ring. On large jars and vases with unglazed bases the mark would be horizontally usually on the shoulder. The Chenghua wares evolved they went through several phases and developments of refining, improving, and expanding their range throughout his reign. 

Some motifs in Chenghua blue and white used flowers, floral scrolls, fruit, three friends, rocks, buildings, landscapes, several dragon styles, phoenixes, various animals, male figures, female figures, children, and Buddhist symbols. There were several Chenghua Dragons styles that were used on different forms and motifs. They also used different amounts of flames coming off the Dragons or none at all. Chenghua potters gained complete control of the cobalt blue and they developed several shades of blue. The shades are the very brilliant rich blue that the 14th and 15th centuries is known for, to a delicate pale blue and all will have the blackish tone. Only sumali/ smalt blue cobalt could give the life you see in the finest Chenghua blue and white. The Chenghua potters were capable of painting details thin as a hair in a distinct free style with motion and flare. I have read many ways to identify Chenghua blue and white such as waves on glazed bases which can be seen when light reflects or a bulge at the lip that can be felt between your fingers. These two things do not occur on all Chenghua wares and they also occur on wares of other periods so do not solely rely on this alone. 

To authenticate Chenghua blue and white the color, painting style, and motifs are the most important factors. Most early blue and white forms have not been published yet. You must be able to recognize various shades of color and the blackish tone. You can do this by viewing as many good photographs as possible and put them right next to blue and white from other periods. Determining color and tone can be the first evidence to authenticate 14th and 15th century blue and white because imported sumali / smalt has not be available for over five hundred years. No other cobalt can give the rich color and blackish tone found in 14th 15th century blue and white. Sometimes in photographs the flash will pop out the blue cobalt when imported sumali / smalt cobalt is used and this can happen also with Mohammedan and European cobalt and the main difference is in the tone. Chinese domestic cobalt used alone will not do this because of its dull grayish purplish blue color. The other cobalt's that will come close to this effect in photographs is imported Mohammedan blue and European foreign blue cobalt and their tone is a reddish purple. When Mohammedan is mixed with Chinese domestic cobalt it will be more opaque and it will not have the rich translucent depth of color or blackish tone of the 14th and 15th century blue and white. Mohammedan cobalt was only used in the 16th century to the early Qing period. I have repeated this several times to emphasize the importance for collectors to understand the color and tone of the imported sumali / smalt and Mohammedan and European foreign blue cobalt's.

The Chenghua doucai wares went through several distinct phases generally what is published is from one phase. The fine potting, soft to the touch glaze, and painting style using contrasting soft and bold color gives the levels of depth and texture that you will not see in doucai wares of any other period. Many published Chenghua doucai pieces show abrupt shading that is not tapered or blended. This often seems like an after thought because often they will go over the under glaze blue lines with outlining color. This type of shading was not done on all Chenghua doucai wares this was one phase. Chenghua potters also did tapering and blending their shading. The Chenghua potters did not paint outlines of color over the under glaze blue lines very often. Chenghua doucai developed the color purple and it is often called soft purple. Most published pieces will show undeveloped purple that looks dark brown this can be misleading to collectors. The Chenghua doucai color purple is usually a soft lighter brownish color when you look through a loop you can see its brownish purplish color. Also they did develop the color and it looks purple. I have read they only used Chinese domestic cobalt to paint the under glaze blue lines on their doucai wares. They also use sumali / smalt blue cobalt mixed with Chinese domestic cobalt to paint the under glaze blue lines in there doucai wares. You can see this in many photographs when the blue will pop out in doucai wares. This will not happen if Chinese domestic cobalt was used alone. 

The most well known Chenghua doucai are the delicate very thin small cups, small stem cups, and small jars with the tian mark. These Chenghua small doucai wine cups used numerous motifs. The most noted are the chicken cups, grape vines, birds, fish, floral, dragons, phoenixes, and Buddhist symbols. Most glazed bases on Chenghua doucai cups, and saucers the mark would be written in a double square or double circle, stem cup horizontally it would be inside the stem. Small bowls, dishes, and small vases and jars would be marked in a double circle or double square except for the jars with the tian single mark. Doucai vases with glazed bases the mark would be written in a double circle and those that are unglazed the mark would be horizontally on the shoulder. Often the Chenghua doucai under glaze blue can seem hazy this can be seen around the mark on the base. The Chenghua potters developed new forms, motifs, and refined the Doucai style of under glaze blue filled in with enamels. 

The Chenghua reign is well renowned for their doucai wares; they brought the use of enamels over under glaze blue to the forefront. The finest Chenghua doucai developed a very distinct style of contrasting soft translucent colors with well thought out striking bolder color that creates levels, depth, texture, and motion in a often playful and often whimsical free style. During the rest of the Ming dynasty the potters sometimes tried to emulate the Chenghua doucai, they did not have mind set or spirit and were unsuccessful. Generally their contrasting colors were just placed without any thought of the whole picture as if they could not see the forest through the trees. The Qing dynasty potters also tried and they had the same problem so they took doucai enamels in another direction. They got serious and decided to improve enamels by using structure and fine details. They were very successful and developed there own style which I call serious doucai. So there are two types of doucai that collectors enjoy; the finely detailed Qing dynasty doucai wares and the playful free style and spirit of the Chenghua doucai wares. Likely some day there will be potters that try to improve Chenghua doucai wares again. They will also fail because they will not have the same mind set or spirit of the Chenghua potters long ago. The finest most sophisticated wares were made during Chenghua reign and his reign was certainly the pinnacle of under glaze blue and white.

The Hongzhi reign is said to be a continuation of the Chenghua reign; the sumali / smalt was still available in lesser amounts. The production of imperial Hongzhi wares dropped off substantially from the Chenghua reign. Imperial Hongzhi wares were marked with a six-character mark that was finely written in two lines and can be encircled with a double circle. The Hongzhi blue and white did not have the Chenghua range of blue shades or their range of forms and motifs. The Honzhi blue and white used generally paler shades of blue than Chenghua and their glaze had a grayish bluish tint. During the Hongzhi reign dragon styles and motifs of all kinds were predominate; also there were floral, fruit, and Sanskrit designs. The Hongzhi blue and white did not have any important innovations. They just tried to continue what the Chenghua potters developed and were only somewhat successful. The beginning Zhengde reign the blue and white was similar to the Hongzhi blue and white. Then the sumali / smalt blue cobalt completely ran out and they had to use Chinese domestic cobalt with its dull tone. 

The Zhengde potters had to take a new direction. They started by producing larger wares and created many different forms and styles for their smaller objects, also their wares became thicker and heavier. In the later part of the Zhengde reign they started using a new imported cobalt called Mohammedan blue. The Mohammedan blue cobalt is dazzling with a purplish blue and a reddish purple tone. This tone is what distinguishes it from sumali / smalt cobalt. It also has to be mixed with Chinese domestic cobalt because alone it would run uncontrollably. The Mohammedan cobalt was more opaque then sumali/ smalt cobalt and was used to the early Qing dynasty. The most common motifs in Zhengde imperial wares were flowers and dragons and they used both four and six character marks. The Zhengde potters did not have enough time using Mohammedan cobalt and were not able to develop its full potential. The Hongzhi and early part of Zhengde reign seem to ride on the coattails of the Chenghua reign with no real important developments. The Chenghua wares are the finest blue and white China has ever produced and were a tough act to follow.

During the Jiajing reign Imperial blue and white used Mohammedan Blue cobalt mixed with Chinese domestic cobalt. They finely refine these cobalt's so no heaping and piling spots can be seen on Jiajing Blue and white. Their potting was not as refined as the earlier wares. The finest Jiajing blue and white have dazzling opaque purplish blue color with reddish purple tone. The free painting style of Jiajing wares lacked the sophistication of the 14th and 15th century blue and white and the dragons became more playful in a cartoon style. The Jaijing Imperial wares have a six-character mark with or without the double circle. There was a large variety of shapes and motifs, children playing was very popular and the dragons and phoenixes, fish, birds, figures, among others were commonly used. The Jiajing blue and white is known more for the Mohammedan blue cobalt with its dazzling color than their artistic merits. They are well known for there polychrome jars and the most important is the large wucai Fish Jars. The longqing reign was short and produces similar wares to Jiajing.

During the Wanli reign it is often said Mohammedan cobalt was used up, others say by the Kangxi reign. I have seen Yongzheng and Qianlong pieces that used Mohammedan cobalt. Most was used up during the Wanli reign but they still must have had some access to the cobalt through the Kangxi reign and likely very little by the Yongzheng and Qianlong reign. The imperial Wanli blue and white used Mohammedan cobalt blue until supplies started to dwindle then their mixes started using more Chinese domestic cobalt than imported Mohammedan. They also used Chinese domestic cobalt alone. The Imperial Wanli potting is coarser somewhat heavy and they did not have the quality clay and cobalt that the 15th century potters used. You can see that the Wanli blue and white wares started to have a flat dull darker grayish purplish tone. Some Wanli blue and white will have heaping and piling black spots with sharp edges that do not melt into the glaze and when they break the surface they have a slight reflection and dark brown color. The blue and white wares declined in the later part of the Wanli reign and through the remainder of the Ming dynasty. 

Not until the Kangxi reign of the Qing Dynasty did all ceramics take a new direction of refinement. The Kangxi potter were able to refine Chinese domestic cobalt enough to give pleasing colors and shades. They also had some access to Mohammedan cobalt and this helped them developed several shades of blue. The Kangxi wares can sometimes look similar to Chenghua wares, some wares have a grayish tone and can be mistaken for the Chenghua blackish tone. This has even caused a whole group of authentic Chenghua wares to be misdated by some that don't know the difference. One example of this group is marked Chenghua lobed bowls that have lobed bases. The lobed bowls with straight bases are not marked and are likely earlier then Chenghua. These Bowls are not Kangxi blue and white and have wrongly been put in this category likely because of the clarity of the glaze, blue color, and refinement of the clay which was just one phase of Chenghua blue and white. 

If the Kangxi potters were able to develop this color and tone they would have put the Kangxi mark on them and not the Chenghua mark. and they would have used this color often because it is finer than any color they were able to develop. It is said Kangxi blue and white has five layers of color and the Mohammedan cobalt is the reason why. Kangxi blue and white sometimes used a free style of painting that tried to emulate the sophistication of the finest Chenghua wares and fell short. Yet their own style was sophisticated and is uniquely Kangxi. This sophistication had been lacking since the 15th century and the Kangxi wares brought it back. The Kangxi wares paid more attention to details and they did not have the free flowing spirit of the 15th century. This was the beginning of refining all the processes and developing the Qing dynasty style of great attention to details. 

The collectors of blue and white must know the qualities and color of sumali / smalt cobalt, Mohammedan cobalt and European Foreign cobalt and how they differ from Chinese domestic cobalt. The 14th 15th century sumali / smalt blue cobalt has the blackish tone. The early 16th century to the early Qing dynasty used Mohammedan cobalt with purplish blue color and reddish purplish tone. Both of the imported cobalt’s had to be mixed with Chinese domestic cobalt with the flat grayish purplish blue color to stabilize them. The Chinese domestic cobalt’s came from several different areas of China and they have slight differences but they all have a dull purplish gray tone. The European foreign blue was used in the later part of the 19th century and has the same color and tone as Mohammedan cobalt. Blue and white objects that the color looks almost black in photographs you must rely on the other known craft techniques. 

A good way to recognize the different colors and tone of cobalt's would be to compare quality photographs next to each other, auction catalogs, and several Chinese art magazines are also good sources. When you see photographs that the blue color pops out this would be a good indication that imported cobalt was used. There are early Qing dynasty blue and white wares that have strong color. In time they will acknowledge some Mohammedan cobalt was also used in the mix. If you collect 14th 15th or 16th century blue and white, knowing the color and tone of the imported cobalt's is the single most important thing to identify the finest blue and white of these periods. If a blue and white object has good color then you can move through the other known craft techniques of painting, motifs, glaze, form, potting, quality, condition, marks, dynasties, and the skills of artisans. Always keep in mind if the color is rich then it is worth looking deeper and you will likely see the other techniques just fall into place. 

The Song Dynasty is known for is wonderful monochrome glazes, refined shapes and forms, finely carved decorations, and free painting style. The Song dynasties innovations and sophisticated wares have their own unique artistic, decorative, and collectable nature that gave the Chinese people a new appreciation for ceramics. The Song potters experimented and developed new glazes, carving techniques, shapes and forms, and firing techniques. Today the most collectable Song Dynasty wares are the Ding white wares, Yaozhou celadon wares, Qingbai pale blue wares, the Jun glaze wares, Cizhou black and white wares, the crackled Guan and Ge wares, the rich celadon Longquan wares, freely decorated Jizhou wares, the refined greenish pale blue glazed Ru wares. The fine dark brown and black glazes are also among other unique glazing techniques. The finest Song dynasty wares have very fine glazes. The potting styles have a larger range of shapes and forms which are often unique to the particular style of ware. They made the body and glaze artistically become one. Song Dynasty potting could range from the very light delicate porcelain body of the Ding White wares to the heavy stoneware body of the often flamboyant Cizhou wares. 

Often the Song dynasty wares have finely carved or molded decorations, and they used a painting style that is loose and free flowing. Historically the most prized Song wares are the Ding, Jun, Ru, Guan, and Ge wares. Many Song ceramic wares continue to be produced through the Yuan Dynasty into the Ming Dynasty; these wares will have their own characteristics that will fit their dynasty. The Chinese started collecting in earnest during the Song dynasty and often decorated there homes using fine Song dynasty ceramics. These wares were cared for and passed down to the next generation. The finest Song Dynasty wares have their own qualities; the body, form, decoration, glaze, and balance of these elements must fit together to make that one piece unusual and unique among other wares of the same type. Balancing elements of the manufacturing processes on Song Dynasty wares does not always mean strict symmetry. The elements should be evaluated by the overall picture and how they fit together artistically. The condition is very important on Song dynasty wares and can be your first consideration when collecting these wares; usually everything else will follow.

Collecting Chinese ceramics is changing and as the market expands collectors should stay on top of their collections as China opens its doors to the world.